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Sahacharadi Thailam — Classical Ayurvedic Medicated Oil

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Overview

Sahacharadi Thailam is a classical Ayurvedic medicated oil (Taila) whose primary ingredient is Sahachara (Strobilanthes ciliatus Nees, syn. Nilgirianthus ciliatus), a plant native to the Western Ghats of India and widely employed in Kerala’s traditional medical practice. The formulation belongs to the broader category of Taila preparations described in Ayurvedic pharmaceutical science (Bhaishajya Kalpana) and is classified under Vatahara Taila — oils specifically indicated for conditions arising from vitiated Vata dosha.

The oil is prepared according to the Taila Paka Vidhi (medicated oil cooking procedure) outlined in Sharangadhara Samhita, Madhyama Khanda, Chapter 9, which represents a classical medicated oil preparation method, which prescribes the standard ratio of 1 part oil : 4 parts liquid (Kashaya or decoction) : ¼ part paste (Kalka). This preparation method ensures the transfer of water-soluble and fat-soluble active constituents from the herbal ingredients into the Sesame oil base.

Sahacharadi Thailam occupies a specific niche within the extensive catalogue of Vatahara Thailams documented in classical literature. While formulations like Mahanarayana Thailam and Dhanwantharam Thailam are premium Vata-balancing oils are polyherbal preparations with broad Vata-balancing indications, Sahacharadi Thailam is distinguished by its relatively focused composition centred on the Sahachara plant and its specific traditional indications related to the lower extremities and neuromuscular function.

Classical References and Textual Sources

The primary classical source for Sahacharadi Thailam is the Sahasrayogam, a compilation text of Kerala Ayurvedic tradition that catalogues thousands of formulations across multiple dosage forms. Sahacharadi Thailam appears in the Taila Prakarana (section on medicated oils) of this work. The Sahasrayogam, though its exact date of composition is debated among scholars, is generally attributed to the late medieval period of Kerala Ayurveda and represents a systematisation of formulations that had been transmitted through physician lineages (Vaidya Paramparā) for generations.

The formulation is also referenced in Ashtanga Hridayam, the treatise composed by Vagbhata (approximately 7th century CE), which is considered the most authoritative text in the Kerala Ayurvedic tradition. Vagbhata’s description of Sahachara and its therapeutic properties appears in the context of Vatavyadhi Chikitsa (treatment of Vata disorders), specifically in Chikitsa Sthana, Chapter 21. The verse describes Sahachara as possessing Ushna Virya (warming potency) and Vata-Kaphahara properties — capable of balancing both Vata and Kapha doshas.

The Bhaishajya Ratnavali, compiled by Govinda Dasji in the 18th century, includes a related formulation under its Vatavyadhi Chikitsa chapter (Ch. 26), confirming the continued use of Sahachara-based oils across different regional traditions of Ayurveda. The Ayurvedic Formulary of India (AFI), Part I, Section 7 (Taila), lists Sahacharadi Thailam as an officially recognised formulation, lending it pharmacopoeial status in modern Indian regulatory frameworks.

The Kerala Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia and the Formulary of Siddha and Ayurvedic Medicines published by the Government of Kerala both include Sahacharadi Thailam, reflecting its particular importance in the Southern Indian Ayurvedic tradition where external oil therapies (Bahya Chikitsa) such as Abhyanga (oil massage), Pizhichil (oil pouring), and Kizhi (bolus fomentation) form the core of clinical treatment protocols.

Composition and Key Ingredients

The composition of Sahacharadi Thailam varies slightly between different classical recensions, but the core formulation documented in Sahasrayogam includes the following ingredients:

Principal Herb (Pradhana Dravya)

Sahachara

Strobilanthes ciliatus Nees (Acanthaceae). This is the Prādhāna Dravya (chief drug) of the formulation, from which the preparation derives its name. Sahachara is a perennial shrub found abundantly in the moist deciduous and semi-evergreen forests of the Western Ghats, particularly in Kerala and Karnataka. The plant is classified in Ayurvedic pharmacology (Dravyaguna Shastra) as having Tikta (bitter) and Kashaya (astringent) Rasa, Ushna (warming) Virya, and Katu (pungent) Vipaka. Its primary action is Vatahara (Vata-alleviating), with secondary Kaphahara properties. The root and leaves are the parts used in the formulation.

Supporting Herbs (Sahayogi Dravya)

Devadaru

Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D.Don) G.Don (Pinaceae). The heartwood is used. Classified as Tikta-Katu Rasa, Ushna Virya. A prominent Vatahara drug described in Charaka Samhita, Sutra Sthana, Ch. 4 as part of the Vatahara Mahakashaya group.

Kushtha — Saussurea costus (Falc.) Lipsch. (syn. S. lappa) (Asteraceae). The root is the officinal part. Tikta-Katu-Madhura Rasa, Ushna Virya. Listed in Charaka Samhita’s Lekhaniya Mahakashaya and recognised in classical texts for its penetrating quality (Tikshna Guna).

Agaru — Aquilaria agallocha Roxb. (syn. A. malaccensis) (Thymelaeaceae). The resinous heartwood is used. Tikta-Katu Rasa, Ushna Virya. Described in Ashtanga Hridayam, Sutra Sthana, Ch. 15 as a drug with particular affinity for Vata and Kapha conditions.

Shunthi — Zingiber officinale Roscoe (Zingiberaceae). Dried ginger rhizome. Katu Rasa, Ushna Virya, Madhura Vipaka. One of the Trikatu group, extensively described across all major classical texts. Contributes bioavailability-enhancing properties to the formulation and serves as a Yogavahi — a substance that potentiates the action of other ingredients.

Rasna — Pluchea lanceolata (DC.) Oliv. & Hiern (Asteraceae), or in Kerala tradition, Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd. (Zingiberaceae). Tikta Rasa, Ushna Virya. Listed as the foremost Vatahara drug in Charaka Samhita, Sutra Sthana, Ch. 25, Sl. 40: “Rasnā vātaharāṇāṃ” — Rasna is chief among Vata-alleviating substances.

Bala — Sida cordifolia L. (Malvaceae). The whole plant, particularly the root, is used. Madhura Rasa, Shita Virya, Madhura Vipaka. A classical Balya (strengthening) and Brumhana (nourishing) drug. Provides a cooling counterbalance to the predominantly warming herbs in the formulation, exemplifying the Ayurvedic principle of balanced composition (Samyoga).

Oil Base (Sneha Dravya)

Tila Taila (Sesame Oil)

Sesame oil,, from Sesamum indicum L. (Pedaliaceae). Sesame oil is considered the best among all oils in Ayurvedic pharmacology. Charaka Samhita, Sutra Sthana, Ch. 13, Sl. 15 states: “Tailam snehānāṃ uttamam” — sesame oil is the most excellent among unctuous substances. It is described as having Ushna Virya, Sukshma (subtle) and Vyavayi (rapidly spreading) properties that allow deep tissue penetration.

Liquid Media (Drava Dravya)

The decoction (Kashaya) for the oil preparation is made from the Sahachara root, boiled according to the standard reduction ratio of 1:4 or 1:8 depending on the specific recension followed. Some versions of the formulation also include Ksheera (cow’s milk) as an additional liquid medium, which contributes Madhura Rasa and Shita Virya, tempering the predominantly warming character of the herbal constituents and improving the sensory qualities of the final product.

Traditional Preparation Method (Taila Paka Vidhi)

The preparation of Sahacharadi Thailam follows the classical Taila Paka Vidhi described in Sharangadhara Samhita, Madhyama Khanda, Chapter 9, Slokas 1–12. The method involves three essential components: Kalka (fine herbal paste), Sneha (oil base), and Drava (liquid media).

Step 1 — Kashaya Preparation (Decoction)

The coarsely powdered Sahachara root, along with other herbs specified in the formulation, is boiled in water at the ratio of 1 part herb : 16 parts water. The decoction is reduced to one-quarter of the original volume through slow, sustained heating — a reduction process called Pāda Śeṣa Kashāya (quarter-remaining decoction). This concentrated liquid captures the water-soluble active constituents of the herbs.

Step 2 — Kalka Preparation (Herbal Paste)

A fine paste is prepared by wet-grinding the same herbs (or a subset specified in the formula) on a stone slab (Silā Yantra) or using a stone mortar (Khalva Yantra). Modern manufacturing may use mechanical pulverisers, though traditional pharmacies still prefer stone grinding to minimise heat generation during the process, which could degrade volatile compounds.

Step 3 — Oil Cooking (Pāka)

The sesame oil, Kashaya, and Kalka are combined in a wide-mouthed vessel (Sthālī) and heated over a controlled flame. Sharangadhara specifies the standard ratio as: 1 part Kalka : 4 parts Sneha : 16 parts Kashaya. The mixture is stirred regularly and cooked until all the water content evaporates and specific physical indicators (Siddhi Lakshana) are observed.

Step 4 — Monitoring Paka Stages

Sharangadhara Samhita describes three stages of oil cooking:

Mridu Paka (soft stage): The Kalka, when rolled between fingers, forms a soft, pliable wick (Varti) without sticking. This stage is appropriate for Nasya (nasal administration) and sensitive applications.

Madhyama Paka (medium stage): The Kalka forms a moderately firm wick. This is the standard endpoint for most external application oils, including Sahacharadi Thailam. When a drop of the Kalka is placed on fire, it burns without crackling — indicating complete removal of moisture.

Khara Paka (hard stage): The Kalka becomes brittle and hard. This stage is used for specific formulations but generally avoided for Sahacharadi Thailam as it can indicate over-processing.

Step 5 — Filtration and Storage

Once Madhyama Paka is achieved, the oil is removed from heat and filtered through a clean cotton cloth (Vastra Galita) while still warm. The filtered oil is collected in clean, dry glass or food-grade containers. Traditional texts recommend storage in earthen pots (Mrit Patra), though modern GMP-compliant facilities use medical-grade glass or HDPE containers. The oil is labelled with the batch number, date of preparation, and expiry date in accordance with regulatory requirements.

Indications in Classical Literature

The classical Ayurvedic literature describes Sahacharadi Thailam in the context of conditions arising from Vata Dosha vitiation, particularly those affecting the musculoskeletal and neuromuscular systems. The traditional indications, as documented across multiple textual sources, include:

Vatavyadhi — A broad category of conditions attributed to disturbed Vata. Charaka Samhita dedicates an entire chapter to Vatavyadhi (Chikitsa Sthana, Ch. 28), describing eighty types of Vata-originated conditions. Sahacharadi Thailam is traditionally indicated within this framework, particularly for conditions manifesting in the lower half of the body — the anatomical region classified as the primary seat of Vata (Vāta Sthāna) according to Ashtanga Hridayam, Sutra Sthana, Ch. 12.

Gridhrasi — A condition characterised by pain radiating along the posterior aspect of the lower limb, described in Sushruta Samhita, Nidana Sthana, Ch. 1 and Madhava Nidana, Ch. 22. Sahachara as a single drug and Sahacharadi Thailam as a compound formulation are both documented for this indication.

Katishoola — Pain in the lumbar region. Ashtanga Hridayam, Chikitsa Sthana, Ch. 21, describes Sahachara Taila among the preparations suitable for this condition when applied locally and used in specific Panchakarma procedures like Kati Basti.

Pakshaghata and Pakshavadha — Hemiplegia or paralysis of one side of the body. Classical texts describe Sahacharadi Thailam as part of comprehensive treatment protocols that include both internal oleation (Snehapana) and external therapies.

Avarana conditions — Specific pathological states where one Dosha or Dhatu obstructs the normal function of Vata. Sahacharadi Thailam is mentioned in the context of Kaphāvrita Vāta (Vata obstructed by Kapha), reflecting the dual Vata-Kapha balancing properties of its chief ingredient.

Traditional Methods of Administration

Sahacharadi Thailam is primarily an external application oil, though certain classical references also describe internal use (Snehapana) under the supervision of a qualified Ayurvedic physician. The principal methods of administration include:

Abhyanga (Oil Massage)

Application of warm Sahacharadi Thailam to the affected area or the entire body, followed by systematic massage using specific strokes and pressure patterns. For localised conditions of the lower extremities, the oil is typically warmed to a comfortable temperature (approximately 38–42°C) and applied with gentle downward strokes (Anuloma Gati) following the direction of body hair, as prescribed in Ashtanga Hridayam, Sutra Sthana, Ch. 2, Sl. 8–9. Art of Vedas offers authentic Thailams prepared according to these classical specifications for home Abhyanga practice.

Pizhichil (Sarvanga Dhara)

A specialised Kerala Panchakarma procedure where warm medicated oil is poured continuously over the body while simultaneously being massaged in. This is a treatment-room procedure requiring trained therapists and is traditionally performed over 7, 14, or 21 consecutive days as part of a structured treatment regimen.

Kati Basti

A localised treatment where warm Sahacharadi Thailam is retained within a dam of black gram dough constructed over the lumbar region. The oil is periodically replaced with fresh warm oil to maintain therapeutic temperature throughout the 30–45 minute procedure. This method allows prolonged contact between the medicated oil and the tissue, facilitating deeper absorption of active constituents.

Janu Basti

The same dam-and-retention technique applied over the knee joint, used for conditions involving the knee and surrounding structures.

Self-Application for Daily Practice

For individuals incorporating Sahacharadi Thailam into a daily self-care routine, the traditional recommendation is to warm a small quantity (approximately 15–30 ml) and apply it to the lower back, hips, and legs using firm, long strokes. Allow the oil to remain on the skin for at least 20–30 minutes before bathing with warm water. The traditional texts recommend performing this practice in the morning, ideally as part of a broader Dinacharya (daily routine) regimen.

Comparison with Related Formulations

Understanding how Sahacharadi Thailam differs from other Vatahara Thailams helps practitioners and informed consumers select the most appropriate preparation for their needs:

Sahacharadi Thailam vs. Mahanarayana Thailam: Mahanarayana Thailam is a large polyherbal formulation containing over 30 ingredients, documented in Bhaishajya Ratnavali, Ch. 26. It has broader indications across all Vata conditions and is sometimes called the “universal Vata oil.” Sahacharadi Thailam, with its more focused composition, is traditionally preferred when the clinical picture specifically involves the lower extremities and neuromuscular function. Mahanarayana Thailam is the more versatile choice for general Abhyanga practice.

Sahacharadi Thailam vs. Dhanwantharam Thailam: Dhanwantharam Thailam is documented in Sahasrayogam and Ashtanga Hridayam for Vata conditions with a particular focus on the post-natal period and reproductive system. Its composition includes Bala (Sida cordifolia) as a major ingredient and features milk as a processing medium, giving it a more nourishing (Brumhana) character. Sahacharadi Thailam has a more warming, penetrating quality suited to conditions involving stiffness and restricted movement.

Sahacharadi Thailam vs. Ksheerabala Thailam: Ksheerabala Thailam is a simpler formulation containing only Bala, sesame oil, and cow’s milk, processed through repeated cycles (Avartana). It is milder and cooler in nature, making it suitable for Vata-Pitta conditions and sensitive individuals. Sahacharadi Thailam, with its predominantly Ushna Virya composition, is more appropriate for conditions with a Vata-Kapha pathology — where coldness, stiffness, and heaviness are predominant symptoms.

Sahacharadi Thailam vs. Kottamchukkadi Thailam: Kottamchukkadi Thailam is a warming, penetrating oil documented in Sahasrayogam with Kottam (Saussurea costus) and Chukkam (dried ginger) as chief ingredients. It is more intensely warming than Sahacharadi Thailam and is traditionally preferred for conditions with prominent Kapha involvement — swelling, heaviness, and congestion. Sahacharadi Thailam offers a more moderate warming effect with specific affinity for neuromuscular function.

Pharmacological Research

While the classical reputation of Sahacharadi Thailam rests on centuries of clinical observation within the Ayurvedic tradition, modern pharmacological research has begun investigating the bioactive compounds present in its key ingredients:

Strobilanthes ciliatus (Sahachara) has been the subject of phytochemical investigations revealing the presence of flavonoids, triterpenoids, sterols, and phenolic compounds. A study published in the Journal of Ethnopharmacology (Vol. 154, Issue 3, 2014) documented the anti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory properties of S. ciliatus extracts in experimental models, providing preliminary scientific support for its traditional applications.

Sesame oil (Sesamum indicum), the vehicle for Sahacharadi Thailam, contains sesamin, sesamolin, and sesamol — lignans with documented antioxidant properties. Research published in the Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine (Vol. 79, 2006) reviewed the pharmacological properties of sesame and noted its capacity to enhance the dermal penetration of co-administered compounds — supporting the Ayurvedic rationale for using sesame oil as the base (Sneha Dravya) for medicated oils.

The Taila Paka method itself has been studied by researchers at the Institute of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine (I-AIM), Bangalore, who demonstrated that the cooking process transfers specific phytochemicals from herbs into the oil medium and may generate novel compounds through thermal processing that are not present in either the raw herbs or the plain oil (published in the Journal of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine, 2015).

Safety, Precautions and Contraindications

Sahacharadi Thailam is generally considered safe for external application when used according to traditional guidelines. The following precautions apply:

Skin sensitivity: As with any medicated oil, a patch test is advisable before first use. Apply a small amount to the inner forearm and wait 24 hours. Discontinue use if redness, itching, or irritation occurs.

Pregnancy and lactation: Classical texts advise caution with Ushna Virya (warming) preparations during pregnancy. Pregnant and nursing women should consult a qualified Ayurvedic practitioner before using Sahacharadi Thailam.

Open wounds and broken skin: Do not apply to open wounds, cuts, burns, or areas of active skin infection. The oil is intended for application on intact skin only.

Pitta-predominant conditions: Due to its warming nature, Sahacharadi Thailam may not be suitable for individuals with active Pitta aggravation (characterised by inflammation, burning sensations, and heat). In such cases, cooler formulations like Ksheerabala Thailam may be more appropriate.

Internal use: Classical references to internal use (Snehapana) of Sahacharadi Thailam describe a supervised therapeutic procedure requiring careful dose calculation, dietary restrictions, and monitoring by a qualified physician. Self-administration of any medicated oil internally is not recommended.

EU Regulatory Note: This article is for educational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. The information presented reflects traditional Ayurvedic literature and is not intended to diagnose, treat, cure, or prevent any disease. Consult a qualified healthcare practitioner before using any Ayurvedic preparation.

Availability in Europe

Sahacharadi Thailam is available in Europe through specialist Ayurvedic suppliers who import from GMP-certified manufacturing facilities in India, particularly from Kerala where this formulation has the strongest clinical tradition. Art of Vedas offers authentic Sahacharadi Thailam sourced from traditional manufacturers who follow the classical Taila Paka method and maintain compliance with European Union food supplement and cosmetic product regulations.

When selecting Sahacharadi Thailam, look for products that specify the classical textual reference (Sahasrayogam), list the complete herbal composition, and provide clear information about the manufacturing process and country of origin. The full range of classical Ayurvedic Thailams available from Art of Vedas includes both well-known formulations like Mahanarayana and Dhanwantharam as well as specialised oils like Sahacharadi, Kottamchukkadi, and Pinda Thailam.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is Sahacharadi Thailam used for in Ayurveda?

Sahacharadi Thailam is a classical Ayurvedic medicated oil traditionally indicated for conditions arising from Vata dosha vitiation, particularly those affecting the lower extremities, lower back, and neuromuscular system. It is documented in the Sahasrayogam and used in Kerala Ayurvedic clinical practice for external application through Abhyanga (oil massage), Kati Basti (lumbar oil retention), and other Panchakarma procedures.

What is the main ingredient in Sahacharadi Thailam?

The principal ingredient is Sahachara (Strobilanthes ciliatus Nees), a plant from the Acanthaceae family native to the Western Ghats of India. The root and leaves of this plant are used in the preparation. Supporting herbs typically include Devadaru (Cedrus deodara), Rasna (Pluchea lanceolata or Alpinia galanga), Kushtha (Saussurea costus), and Bala (Sida cordifolia), processed in a sesame oil base.

How is Sahacharadi Thailam prepared?

It is prepared according to the Taila Paka Vidhi (medicated oil cooking method) described in Sharangadhara Samhita. The process involves cooking a sesame oil base with a concentrated herbal decoction (Kashaya) and fine herbal paste (Kalka) until all moisture evaporates and the oil reaches Madhyama Paka (medium-cooked stage), which is verified through specific physical indicators described in the classical texts.

How do I apply Sahacharadi Thailam at home?

Warm approximately 15–30 ml of the oil to a comfortable temperature. Apply to the lower back, hips, and legs using firm, long strokes following the direction of body hair. Allow the oil to remain on the skin for 20–30 minutes, then bathe with warm water. This can be performed daily as part of a morning self-care routine. Always perform a patch test before first use.

What is the difference between Sahacharadi Thailam and Mahanarayana Thailam?

Mahanarayana Thailam is a large polyherbal formulation with over 30 ingredients and broad indications across all Vata conditions. Sahacharadi Thailam has a more focused composition centred on Sahachara and is traditionally preferred specifically for conditions affecting the lower extremities and neuromuscular function. Mahanarayana Thailam is the more versatile general-purpose Vata oil.

Is Sahacharadi Thailam safe during pregnancy?

Classical Ayurvedic texts advise caution with warming (Ushna Virya) preparations during pregnancy. Pregnant and nursing women should consult a qualified Ayurvedic practitioner before using Sahacharadi Thailam. Milder oils such as Ksheerabala Thailam or Dhanwantharam Thailam are more commonly recommended for the prenatal period.

Can Sahacharadi Thailam be taken internally?

Some classical references describe internal use (Snehapana) as part of supervised Panchakarma protocols. However, internal use of medicated oils requires careful dose calculation, dietary restrictions, and monitoring by a qualified Ayurvedic physician. Self-administration internally is not recommended.

What does “Thailam” mean?

Thailam (also spelled Tailam) is the Malayalam/Sanskrit term for medicated oil. It refers to an oil preparation made by cooking a base oil (typically sesame oil) with herbal decoctions and pastes according to the standardised Taila Paka Vidhi method described in Ayurvedic pharmaceutical texts. The term distinguishes these classically prepared medicated oils from plain carrier oils.

Which classical text describes Sahacharadi Thailam?

The primary source is the Sahasrayogam, a Kerala Ayurvedic compilation text, in its Taila Prakarana (oils section). Related references appear in Ashtanga Hridayam (Vagbhata), Chikitsa Sthana, Ch. 21, and in Bhaishajya Ratnavali, Ch. 26. The formulation is also included in the Ayurvedic Formulary of India (AFI), Part I.

Where can I buy authentic Sahacharadi Thailam in Europe?

Authentic Sahacharadi Thailam prepared according to classical methods is available through Art of Vedas, which sources from GMP-certified facilities in Kerala. Look for products that reference the Sahasrayogam formulation, list the complete herbal composition, and comply with EU cosmetic or food supplement regulations. Visit artofvedas.com for the full range of classical Thailams.

References

  1. Sahasrayogam — Taila Prakarana (Section on Medicated Oils). K. V. Krishnan Vaidyan & S. Gopala Pillai (eds.), Vidyarambham Publishers, Alappuzha.
  2. Vagbhata. Ashtanga Hridayam — Chikitsa Sthana, Ch. 21 (Vatavyadhi Chikitsa). Translated by Prof. K. R. Srikantha Murthy, Chowkhamba Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi.
  3. Sharangadhara. Sharangadhara Samhita — Madhyama Khanda, Ch. 9 (Sneha Kalpana). Translated by Prof. K. R. Srikantha Murthy, Chaukhambha Orientalia, Varanasi.
  4. Govinda Das. Bhaishajya Ratnavali — Ch. 26 (Vatavyadhi Chikitsa). Edited by Brahmashankar Mishra, Chaukhambha Prakashan, Varanasi.
  5. Ayurvedic Formulary of India (AFI), Part I, Section 7 (Taila). Government of India, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.
  6. Kerala Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia. Government of Kerala, Department of Ayurveda.
  7. Charaka. Charaka Samhita — Sutra Sthana, Ch. 13 (Snehadhyaya) and Chikitsa Sthana, Ch. 28 (Vatavyadhi Chikitsa). Translated by R. K. Sharma & Bhagwan Dash, Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office, Varanasi.
  8. Sushruta. Sushruta Samhita — Nidana Sthana, Ch. 1. Translated by Kaviraj Kunjalal Bhishagratna, Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office, Varanasi.
  9. Madhavakara. Madhava Nidana — Ch. 22 (Vatavyadhi Nidana). Translated by Prof. K. R. Srikantha Murthy, Chaukhambha Orientalia, Varanasi.
  10. Suresh Kumar, S. et al. “Anti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities of Strobilanthes ciliatus Nees.” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, Vol. 154, Issue 3, 2014.
  11. Namiki, M. “The chemistry and physiological functions of sesame.” Food Reviews International, Vol. 11, 1995.
  12. Mukherjee, P. K. et al. “Preparation and quality evaluation of Ayurvedic Taila preparations.” Journal of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine, 2015.

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